1. Part of Speech: noun, verb, adjective, adverb
    
2. Pronunciation and Stress: International Phonetic Alphabet, 'standard phonetics' and audio examples of US and UK pronunciation + syllable pattern.
    
3. Word Forms: related words such as, for a verb, the past, -ing, and -ed forms and derived forms such as adjectives and adverbs based on the main word
    
4. Grammar and Usage patterns such as complementation pattern (eg. take sth. to swhere: "Take the bike to the repair shop"); whether the verb is being used transitively (has an object) or intransitively (does not have an object), whether a noun is countable or uncountable)
    
5. Meaning(s) in order of importance with example phrases or sentences
    
6. Field: if the term is mainly used in - or has a different meaning in - chemistry, geography, linguistics, physics, grammar, mathematics, medical science, social science, business, philosophy, fine arts, etc.) 
    
7. Synonyms and (possibly) information about the different connotations (positive, neutral, negative in tone) of synonyms and antonyms
    
8. Collocations: words that are frequently used with the target word and set phrases or idioms using the word (e.g. 'in the market', 'on the market')
    
9. Dialect: whether the word is mainly used in (or has a different meaning in) American English, Australian English, Scottish or Irish English, Canadian English, or a particular type of British English ('Northern, Midlands, Lancashire') 
    
10. Currency: some indication of how common the word is, how it matches to the CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference) levels and if one or more meanings of the term is old-fashioned, historic or obsolete.
     
11. Register: whether the word is formal or informal; whether the term is in the Academic Word List or not (note: some people would consider dialect to be part of register) 
     
12. Etymology: the history of the word e.g. market: 1100-1150; from the Latin mercātus (mercā(rī): to buy + suffix -tus 'action')
     
13. Morphology: any prefix or affix used to create the word or to create related words from the word (e.g. 'market' <-> 'supermarket' <-> 'hypermarket' <-> 'marketplace'

The link underneath will ask you to download a file. It's a learning game for all the above ideas. If you are using an iPad (or other tablet), save it to the device and try to open it with Chrome.

Find out here. Click on GAME to see:

Find out more on the next page

1. Noun: A word for a person, place, thing, or idea (e.g., dog, city, love, attribute, attribution).
2. Verb: A word that describes an action, occurrence, or state of being (e.g., run, is, think, attribute).
3. Adjective: A word that describes or modifies a noun (e.g., big, blue, happy, attributable).
4. Adverb:  A word that describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb (e.g., quickly, very, well).
5. Pronoun: A word that takes the place of a noun (e.g., he, they, it, someone.
6. Preposition: A word that shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and another word in the sentence (e.g., in, on, at, with, to*).
7. Conjunction: A word that connects words, phrases, or clauses (e.g., and, but, because).
8. Interjection: A word or phrase that expresses strong emotion and stands alone (e.g., wow!, ouch!).

Many words, like 'attribute', can belong to more than one part of speech depending on their use in a sentence.

How Each Dictionary Indicates Parts of Speech

Dictionaries use abbreviations, labels, colour, and formatting to indicate a word's part of speech. 

All dictionaries clearly mark parts of speech, their methods reflect their target audience. Learner's dictionaries (LDOCE, Cambridge) use full words and more explanatory notes, while traditional dictionaries (MW, Collins, TFD) may use standard abbreviations and assume a higher level of grammatical knowledge.

1. The specific sounds that make up a word. Dictionaries represent these using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), a standardised system where each symbol corresponds to one sound. Note that Merriam-Webster is an exception (see the pdf below).
    
2. Stress: The emphasis placed on a particular syllable within a word. In polysyllabic words (words with more than one syllable), one syllable is pronounced more forcefully than the others. This is called 'primary stress'. Some longer words also have 'secondary stress, which is weaker than primary stress but stronger than an unstressed syllable. Correct stress is often more important for being understood than perfect individual sounds.

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

All major dictionaries use IPA transcriptions. They provide different transcriptions for UK (typically representing Received Pronunciation) and US (typically representing General American) English.

Example for 'attribute':

•  Noun:  UK / 'æt.rɪ.bjuːt /, US / 'æt.rə.bjuːt /
• Verb:    UK / ə.'trɪ.bjuːt /,  US / ə.'trɪ.bjuːt /

This tells us: 

• The vowel sounds (e.g., the first vowel in the noun is /æ/ like in "cat")
• The difference in the vowel sounds in the second syllable (UK: /ɪ/ vs. US: /ə/).
• Syllable breaks.
• Stress (especially, here, the different stress patterns between the noun and verb versions

Audio Files

All modern online dictionaries include audio recordings of pronunciations. This is arguably the most important feature for learners, as it provides an immediate, accurate model to imitate.

Some dictionaries (like LDOCE and Cambridge) allow users to hear the word spoken slowly and clearly.

In-context pronunciation: some dictionaries (like Cambridge) also provide an audio recording of the example sentence.

Conclusion

All dictionaries provide the core information of IPA and stress, their presentation and additional features (like slow audio or example sentence audio) cater to slightly different learning styles. LDOCE and Cambridge are particularly focused on learners, while Merriam-Webster and The Free Dictionary offer alternative systems for those who find IPA challenging.

A  word family is a group of words that share a common root or base word and are related through meaning and form. They are created by adding different prefixes (before the root) and suffixes (after the root).

Example

The 'attribute' word family:

Root/Base: 'attribute' (from Latin 'attribuere', meaning 'to assign to')
Core Family Members:

• Verb: 'to attribute'  (e.g., 'She attributed the quote to Shakespeare'.)
• Noun: 'an attribute' (e.g., 'Kindness is a good attribute'.)
• Adjective: 'attributable' (e.g., 'The success was attributable to hard work.')
• Noun: 'attribution' (e.g., 'The attribution of the quote to Shakespeare was incorrect. It was actually from Marlowe.')

Why Word Families Matter 

Dictionaries that highlight word families (like LDOCE, Cambridge, and Collins) do more than just define words; they teach vocabulary strategically. They show learners that English is a structured system. By understanding the root 'attribute', a student can decode and remember the meanings of 'attribution' (the act or result of attributing) and 'attributable' ('able' to be attributed).

This changes vocabulary learning from memorising isolated words to understanding a network of related concepts, which is far more efficient and effective.

Complementation patterns explain define the structure that follows the word (e.g., a noun, a prepositional phrase, a clause, an infinitive).

This refers to elements that are required by the word for the sentence to be complete and grammatical. Without them, the sentence feels unfinished or is outright wrong.

• Example with the verb "put": The verb "put" requires both what you put (a direct object) and where you put it (a locative complement).

  • Correct: "She put the book on the shelf."

  • Incorrect: "She put." / "She put the book." (Both are grammatically incomplete)

• Example with the adjective 'fond':

  • Correct: She is fond of chocolate ('fond' must be followed by a prepositional phrase when it is used as an adjectival complement)

  • Incorrect: She is fond.

This refers to elements that add extra information but are not required for the grammatical completeness of the sentence. The sentence would still be correct without them.

• Example with the verb "eat": You can eat (in general), you can eat something (a direct object), or you can eat something at a place (object + optional prepositional phrase).

  • "She eats." (Grammatically complete)

  • "She eats lunch." (Adds information)

  • "She eats lunch at her desk." (Adds more information)

It is a transitive verb that requires a specific structure to be complete.

The necessary pattern is: 

attribute + DIRECT OBJECT + to + AGENT/CAUSE

• attribute: the verb itself.

• Direct Object: this is necessary. You must state what is being attributed.

• to: this preposition is necessary and fixed. You cannot use for, with, or at.

• Agent/Cause:  this is necessary. You must state who or what is being credited.

What happens without parts of this pattern:

• "She attributed." ❌ (incomplete: missing what and to what)

• "She attributed the success." ❌ (incomplete: missing to what)

• "She attributed to hard work." ❌ (incomplete: missing what)

• "She attributed the success to hard work." ✅ (Grammatically complete)

The verb determines the transitivity of the clause.

There are five transitivity patterns in English. These patterns reflect the number and kinds of complements and other components required by different types of verbs.

Source: Grammarpedia - Transitivity

[T], transitive verb, or tr.v. labels 

For 'attribute', the [T] label explicitly rules out the possibility of using it without a direct object.

However, note that in communication, if the direct object and agent are known and understood in the context of the conversation, it is possible to have an example without the correct complementation:

Last week Martin attributed this quote to Shakespeare. Then to Matthew. Then to Marlow. Then to Robinson!

Yes, he made a lot of mistakes. He's too quick to attribute.

(understood within the conversation '[to attribute] quotes to authors'

1. An explicit (complementation) pattern formula ('attribute X to Y').
2. Indications of likely use of voice (e.g. 'usually passive')
3. Information about the necessary complementation: whether the verb is transitive or not in this meaning
4. Information about the nature of the noun (C for countable, U for uncountable)
5. Example sentences, demonstrating the most common uses of the verb in real-world English

The Cambridge English dictionary states this explicitly, the other dictionaries give example sentences which use the passive and active voices:

Active Voice:

'Subject        + attribute     + Direct Object    + to + Agent'
'Shakespeare attributed    his play's theme      to    historical events.'

Passive Voice:

'Direct Object (as Subject) + be  + attributed + to + Agent'                  (optional Subject)
His play's theme                   was      attributed    to    historical events (by Shakespeare)."

In the passive voice, the 'to + Agent' phrase remains necessary.

However, the 'by' phrase (which refers to the subject in the active voice sentence) is often omitted if the subject is unknown or unimportant (e.g., 'The discovery was attributed to luck.' 'Mistakes were made.')

A dictionary has one or more 'entries' for the word which might refer to different meanings or different parts of speech. The number or order of the entries indicates how common that meaning or use is. In other words, the first entry is the most common meaning or use of the word.

When a meaning of the word is highly specific, this will be indicated. In the image below, the entries are numbered 7, 8, and 9 meaning that they are the least common uses of the word.

(from Collins dictionary)  

Your choice of dictionary will depend on what you are looking for, how deeply you want to understand the word, and your own level of English.

Assuming an IELTs equivalent level of 5.0, the best option is probably the Longman (LDOCE) because of its accessibility: LDOCE uses a limited defining vocabulary of 2000 words which ensures the explanations themselves are learning tools. The examples used are therefore appropriate to everyday, understandable contexts.

LDOCE gives students exactly what they need: the two most common meanings and how to use them correctly, without confusion from historic or very specialised definitions.

Personally, I prefer the Collins dictionary as I like the way it addresses the reader and its use of colour.

Example for 'attribute' (noun):

Synonyms: quality, characteristic, feature, trait, property, virtue.

Nuance: 'Patience' can be seen as a 'virtue' (a good thing) or a necessary 'attribute' for a teacher (a good teacher is patient), but while 'wings' may also be seen as attributes / features of a bird, plane or flying insect, they are not virtues.

How the dictionaries show synonyms

1. Cambridge English Dictionaries (CED and CLD) have a dedicated thesaurus tab located at the top of the page, next to the 'Definitions' and 'Translations' tabs. 
    
2. LDOCE uses synonyms within its definitions. For example, the noun 'attribute' is defined as "a quality or feature...", immediately providing a synonym.
    
3. Merriam-Webster includes an excellent 'Synonym Discussion' section directly within the entry, providing nuanced comparisons between words like attribute, ascribe, assign, and impute.
    
4. Collins English Dictionary has a clear 'Synonyms of' section on the main entry page, listing synonyms for the noun form like quality, character, point, aspect, property, and feature.
    
5. The Free Dictionary (TFD) TFD has a Thesaurus tab that aggregates synonyms from multiple sources, providing the most extensive list. It also has a visual thesuarus which is very interesting: it's like a mind map of related meanings.

Cambridge English Dictionary (CED) has a collocations section at the bottom of the page. For the noun 'attribute', it provides lists of common adjectives (e.g., essential, important, key, main, personal, physical) and verbs (e.g., have, possess, share) that collocate with the word.

Collins English Dictionary also has a collocations section at the bottom of the page with similar content 'desirable attribute, important attribute, key attribute, personal attribute, possess an attribute'.

The other dictionaries do not have collocation sections

Positive and negative connotation

Words may have positive or negative connotations that depend upon the social, cultural, and personal experiences of individuals. For example, the words childish, childlike and youthful have the same denotative, but different connotative, meanings. Childish and childlike have a negative connotation, as they refer to the immature behaviour of a person whereas, youthful implies that a person is lively and energetic.

Merriam-Webster explicitly explains connotation in the 'Synonym Discussion' section which discusses the nuanced differences between synonyms of 'attribute'. Specifically, it distinguishes between 'impute' (as a synonym of 'attribute') which has a negative connotation of accusation or blame ('They imputed his clumsiness to arrogance.') and 'credit' (another synonym of 'attribute') which has a positive connotation implying praise ('We credit our success to good planning.')

Longman (LDOCE), Cambridge and Collins dictionaries imply connotation through examples. For example, the sentences explaining the noun 'attribute' almost exclusively use positive or desirable qualities: LDOCE: 'What attributes should a good manager have?'. Cambridge: 'Organisational ability is an essential attribute for a good manager.'

Collins, by contrast, has one negative or neutral connotation: 'Cruelty is a normal attribute of human behaviour'.

You typically 'attribute' positive or neutral qualities to someone or something. It is less common to use it for negative traits.

Natural Use: 'Patience is a key attribute of a leader.' ✅ Positive connotation

Strange Use: 'Stubbornness is one of his worst attributes.' ❌ (While grammatically correct, it sounds slightly odd because the strong negative 'worst' clashes with the positive-leaning 'attribute'. A native speaker might prefer to use 'traits' or 'flaws' here.)

Attribute as a verb ('to regard something as being caused by'):

The verb itself is neutral, but the connotation is heavily influenced by the words that follow it and the synonym you use 

Neutral Use: 'Scientists attribute the climate changes to human activity.'

Negative Connotation: 'Critics attributed the company's failure to the CEO's arrogance.'.

For example, you would speak more respectfully to someone older, someone in authority, or to an expert in your field than you would to a casual friend; when you go home, you would be more likely to want to 'fit in' by using the natural patterns of speech that most people use in your home town.

Joos (1967), identified five registers of language or styles of English usage.

1. frozen,
2. formal,
3. consultative,
4. casual, and
5. intimate.

It is printed, unchanging language, formal, almost scripted phrases that do not vary such as laws, prayers, constitution, degree conferment, marriage vows (note the use of 'thee' and 'till' in the marriage vows:

• "I, Peter, take thee, Mary Eugenia, to be my lawful wedded wife, to have and to hold, from this day forward, for better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love and to cherish, till death do us part."
• "It is my great honour to welcome you to the EAP-ESP Conference here at UNNC."
• "Please submit the information at your earliest convenience."
• "As you commence this endeavour, I offer you all my prayers and support."
• "Farewell and Godspeed."

It is often one-way communication, with no interruptions. It is used in impersonal, formal settings and follows a commonly accepted format - complete sentences, more complex syntax and specific word usages, often to show respect.

Examples are

• Introductions between strangers,
• Rhetorical statements and questions;
• Speeches, 
• Pronouncements made by judges,
• Announcements.

This is the standard for work, school, public offices and business settings:

• "Good morning. I’ll let Dr. Jones know you are here."
• "Could you possibly type this up for me by tomorrow?"
• "Thank you for applying for this position. We will let you know in a week if you have been chosen for an interview."
• "Goodbye. We look forward to seeing you again."

The ability to use formal register is a hidden rule of the middle class. Well-paying jobs are accessed via formal register and would use formal register throughout the work being done. Using casual register in an application letter, resume, or job interview will disqualify many job applicants immediately. Regardless of intelligence or ability, the applicant would be relegated to a lower-paying position.

It is commonly very informal language, with an assumption of shared prior knowledge: that the other person knows what you are talking about or what you mean.

The use of slang is common to reinforce or establish group identity. Interruptions are common and non-verbal communication is important.

Examples:

• Communication between friends and acquaintances,
• Communication within a family,
• Communication between teammates,
• Communication on chats and blogs.

1. "Hey, Jack. What’s up?"
   "Nothing, I'm good. You?
    
2. "Watch the door for me, OK?"
   "Sure. Got it."
   "Cheers."
    
3. "Whoa, way to go! Nice catch!"
   "Yeah!"
    
4. "Bye now – take care."
   "You, too. Bye!"

Intimate language is not for the public. Intonation is often as important as wording and grammar and it might include private vocabulary.

Examples are language used between

• a husband and wife / partner,
• boyfriend & girlfriend,
• twins (siblings), and
• language use with pets.

This type of language is also used in cases of sexual harassment where one person does not wish to be spoken to in this register.

1. "How’s my little puppy today?"
2. "Gemme a cuppa tea would ya, darlin?"
3. "Nice one, sweetie!" 
4. "Later, love."

1. Formal: The word is appropriate for serious writing, official documents, or speeches.
    
2. Academic: The word appears in the Academic Word List (note that all academic words are formal, but not all formal words are academic)
    
3. Informal / colloquial: The word is used in everyday conversation but might be avoided in formal writing. (e.g., guy instead of man).
    
4. Slang: Very informal, often used by a particular group and can become outdated quickly.
    
5. Technical / Specialized (e.g. Medical / Legal): The word is primarily used within a specific field or profession. This is also known as the domain or field that the word is used in.
    
6. Offensive / Vulgar / Derogatory: The word is likely to cause upset or anger and should be used with extreme caution.
    
7. Humorous: The word is used to create a comic effect.
    
8. Archaic / Old-fashioned: The word is no longer in common use but might be found in older texts.
    
9. Dated: The word is still understood but feels old-fashioned to a modern speaker.

In the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) the entries are classified according to the use of an expression in different language situations. Generally, all entries are classified as 'standard'.

Additionally, some expressions are categorised differently according to the particular contexts in which they are appropriately used. The main register labels in the Oxford Thesaurus of English (2006) are the following:

• Informal: normally used only in contexts such as conversations or letters between friends
• Vulgar slang: informal language that may cause offence […]
• Formal: normally used only in writing such as official documents
• Technical: normally used in technical and specialist language, though not necessarily restricted to any specific field
• Literary: found only or mainly in literature written in an ‘elevated’ style
• Dated: no longer used by the majority of English speakers […]
• Historical: still used today, but only to refer to some practice or article that is no longer part of the modern world
• Humorous: used with the intention of sounding funny or playful
• Archaic: very old-fashioned language, not in ordinary use at all today […]
• Rare: not in common use”

(Oxford Thesaurus of English 2006, Introduction ix)

'Technical 'and 'Literary' would be considered to be 'field' 

'Historical', 'Archaic', 'Rare' and 'Obsolete' would be considered to be 'Currency'

Here is the definition of 'channel' adapted from the free online dictionary. The fields are marked by parentheses (...). I have highlighted the different fields in yellow:

channel (ˈtʃænəl) n

1. (Physical Geography) 
   1. a broad strait connecting two areas of sea
   2. the bed or course of a river, stream, or canal
2. (Nautical Terms) a navigable course through a body of water
3. (often plural) a means or agency of access, communication, etc: to go through official channels.
4. a course into which something can be directed or moved: a new channel of thought
5. (Electronics) electronic
   1. a band of radio frequencies assigned for a particular purpose, esp the broadcasting of a television signal
   2. a path for an electromagnetic signal: a stereo set has two channels.
   3. a thin semiconductor layer between the source and drain of a field-effect transistor, the conductance of which is controlled by the gate voltage
6. a tubular or trough-shaped passage for fluids
7. (Architecture) a groove or flute, as in the shaft of a column
8. (Computer Science) computing
   1. a path along which data can be transmitted between a central processing unit and one or more peripheral devices
   2. one of the lines along the length of a paper tape on which information can be stored in the form of punched holes
9. (Metallurgy) short for channel iron

Channel - definition of channel by The Free Dictionary

A restricted or field-specific use of a term could be considered to be professional or technical language or 'jargon'. 

Synonyms: domain, province, realm, sphere, territory

• the domain of physics; 
• the province of politics; 
• the realm of constitutional law; 
• a task within his assistant's sphere; 
• the territory of historical research;

Its primary function is to allow for precise, efficient communication among members of that group about complex, field-specific concepts. It often creates a barrier to understanding for outsiders who are unfamiliar with its terms.

Jargon may not be indicated as such in dictionaries, but might be labelled within 'field' as in Habeas Corpus and AWOL below. The example of 'stat' shows that it was originally a medical term.

Core Characteristics

1. Precision: jargon can express a complex idea in a single term (e.g., "metastasis" in medicine).
2. Efficiency: jargon allows for quick, shorthand communication among experts.
3. Exclusionary: jargon can intentionally or unintentionally create an "insider vs. outsider" dynamic.
4. Neutral connotation: unlike slang, jargon is not inherently informal or rebellious; it is the standard working language of a domain.

Examples of Jargon by Field

1. Medicine & Healthcare
   1. STAT: Immediately, from the Latin statim.
      
      
       
   2. Differential Diagnosis (DDx): The list of possible conditions that could explain a patient's symptoms.
   3. PRN: As needed (from Latin pro re nata).
   4. Idiopathic: Of a disease or condition arising spontaneously or with an unknown cause.
2. Law
   1. Tort: A civil wrong that causes harm, leading to legal liability.
   2. Due Diligence: The comprehensive research or review required before a transaction.
   3. Habeas Corpus: A writ requiring a person under arrest to be brought before a judge.
      
      
       
   4. Res Ipsa Loquitur: "The thing speaks for itself"; a doctrine where negligence is presumed from the nature of the accident.
3. Finance & Business
   1. Liquidity: The availability of liquid assets to a market or company.
   2. Synergy: The hoped-for extra benefit achieved by combining two companies or departments.
   3. Burn Rate: The rate at which a new company spends its venture capital. 
   4. KPI (Key Performance Indicator): A measurable value demonstrating how effectively a company is achieving key business objectives.
4. Academia & Research
   1. Peer Review: The evaluation of work by others in the same field.
   2. Paradigm Shift: A fundamental change in the basic concepts and practices of a scientific discipline.
   3. Hegemony: The political, economic, or military predominance of one state over others.
   4. Ontology: In philosophy, the study of being and existence; in computer science, a formal naming and definition of categories and relationships.
5. Technology & Computing
   1. API (Application Programming Interface): A set of rules allowing different software applications to communicate.
   2. Low-Hanging Fruit: The easiest problems to solve or targets to achieve.
   3. Kernel: The core component of an operating system.
   4. Recursion: A programming method where a function calls itself.
6. Military
   1. AWOL: Absent Without Official Leave.
      
      
       
   2. SITREP: Situation Report.
   3. Collateral Damage: Unintended civilian casualties or destruction.
   4. Theatre: A specific geographic area of military operations.
7. Publishing & Journalism
   1. Hed (Headline): The title of a story.
   2. Deck: A sub-headline that elaborates on the hed.
   3. Nut Graf: The paragraph that summarises the essential point of a story.
   4. Kicker: A short, impactful tagline or concluding sentence.

It originates within and is primarily used by specific social groups, subcultures, or generations as a marker of group identity, solidarity, and attitude. Its core functions are social: to sound casual, playful, rebellious, trendy, or to creatively express new concepts for which standard language lacks terms.

Slang is highly dynamic and often has a short lifespan.

Core Characteristics

1. Informality: slang deliberately avoids standard, formal vocabulary.
2. Group Identity: slang signals membership in a particular group (e.g., teenagers, gamers, musicians).
3. Creativity & Novelty: slang often involves metaphor, abbreviation, and playful alteration of existing words.
4. Ephemerality: slang tends to be trendy and can become dated quickly as new slang emerges.
5. Connotation-Driven: the meaning of slang terms is heavily reliant on context, tone, and social understanding.

Examples of Slang by Origin/Group

1. General & Cross-Generational (though origins vary)
   1. Cool: Good, excellent, fashionable. A classic example of enduring slang.
   2. Bail / Dip: To leave suddenly. "This party is boring, let's dip."
   3. Salty: Bitter, resentful, or irritated. "He's still salty about losing the game."
   4. Hype: Excited energy or excessive promotion. "The hype for the new movie is real."
2. Youth & Internet-Driven Slang
   1. Ghost: To abruptly cut off all communication with someone.
   2. Slay: To do something exceptionally well. "Your presentation slayed."
   3. Rizz: Charisma, charm, or the ability to attract someone. Short for "charisma."
   4. Main Character Energy: Behaving as if you are the central, important figure in a situation.
   5. Touch Grass: An online admonition to go outside and engage with the real world, implying someone is overly online.
   6. Based: Authentic, holding opinions without regard for popularity. Often used approvingly.
3. Gaming & Online Communities
   1. GG (Good Game): Said at the end of a match, as a sign of sportsmanship.
   2. Noob / Newb: A new, inexperienced player (can be derogatory or neutral).
   3. OP (Overpowered): Describing a weapon, character, or strategy that is unfairly strong.
   4. Grind: To perform repetitive tasks in a game to advance or earn rewards.
   5. Pog / Poggers: An expression of excitement or hype, originating from the streaming platform Twitch.

Creative & Thematic Formation

Slang is created through recognisable patterns:

1. Shortening & Alteration:
   1. Fam (family/friend),
   2. Cray (crazy), Rents (parents).
2. Reversal of Meaning: Sick, Bad, or Wicked to mean "very good."
3. Metaphor:
   1. Bread, Dough, Cheddar for money;
   2. Cheugy for something trying too hard to be trendy but failing.
4. Compound & Blends:
   1. FOMO (Fear Of Missing Out),
   2. Hangry (hungry + angry).

Collins Online dictionary labels the term 'slang':

Dictionary.com also has a special 'slang dictionary':

Note: as of January 2025, these were the only two dictionaries with an entry for the word

The same thing is true of English word choice. Sometimes students choose words that are not suitable because they are too technical, too informal, too historical or just not appropriate for the context. This is like going to a picnic in a fancy dress.

The words you choose for an academic essay should be like the clothes you would wear to a job interview: serious and carefully chosen, but not too fancy.

Most words are perfectly fine to use in academic writing, what you really need to understand is which words are NOT suitable.

If words are labelled as

• informal,
• slang
• colloquial
• dated
• old-fashioned,
• archaic 
• obsolete
• dialectal

... you should not use them. 

Strangely, even words labelled 'formal' may not be suitable as these are usually only used be experts in their field when writing or talking to other experts. Even doctors would not use the word 'rhinitis' to a patient (it means 'inflammation of the nasal passage' or just 'the common cold' in medical language). 

Using Learner Dictionaries to find unsuitable words

Imagine that you are writing an essay and need a different word to replace food. Here are some words you have found as possible replacements: chow, comestibles, and victuals.

Here is the information you find about those words in learner’s dictionaries:

Chow

The LDOCE shows you that 'chow' is 'old-fashioned' and 'informal'.

Cambridge agrees that 'chow' is ;old-fashioned slang'

However, Merriam-Webster doesn't give any extra information:

Comestibles 

The LDOCE doesn't have an entry for 'comestibles'.

The Cambridge Online Dictionary states that 'comestibles' is 'formal' - but that might mean that it is only used by professionals in the food industry.

Merriam_webster gives no additional information:

Victuals

Longman states that it is an 'old use'.

Cambridge states that is is 'old-fashioned' or 'humorous'

Merriam-Webster gives no additional information about the word.

You cannot write an essay using only academic words. 

The Academic Word List

The Academic Word List (AWL) which was developed by Averil Coxhead at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand, contains 570 word families which frequently appear in academic texts, but which are not contained in the General Service List (GSL).

When compiling the list, the author found that the AWL covers around 10% of words in academic texts; if you are familiar with words in the GSL, which covers around 80% of words in written texts, you would have knowledge of approximately 90% of words in academic texts. The words in the AWL are not connected with any particular subject, meaning they are useful for all students.

Most learner's dictionaries do not tell you directly if a word is academic, but this dictionary does: Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Cambridge Online:
 

You can see 'AWL' in orange after the pronunciation of 'analyse'. AWL stands for 'Academic Word List'.

A mistake that many students make is to think that they should only use words from the AWL in their writing. This would be impossible.

Dictionaries will indicate if a term is used only in a particular dialect or used with a different meaning in that dialect by using labels like 'Scottish', 'Irish', 'Northern English', 'Southern US', 'New England', 'Appalachian' or sometimes just 'dialect'.
A very specific term might only be found in dedicated dialect dictionaries.

Merriam-Webster (MW): has a good coverage of common American regionalisms.

Example 'poke' (noun) is labelled 'chiefly Southern & Midland' for its meaning as a paper bag and 'Bubbler' is labelled 'chiefly New England' for a drinking fountain.

Collins: often includes well-established regional terms from across the British Isles.

Example: 'wee' (small) is labelled 'Scottish' 'Irish' and 'Dreich' (dreary, bleak - especially weather) is labelled 'Scot'.

LDOCE & Cambridge: include only the most common and widely understood regionalisms. They will label a word like 'loch' (Scottish for lake) but are less likely to include very localised vocabulary.

International Varieties (Australia, Canada, India, etc.)

Dictionaries are increasingly adding vocabulary from other major English-speaking countries, though coverage is still uneven.

Australian English

Australian English has its own dictionary: The Macquarie Dictionary  which is the definitive record of Australian English. Other dictionaries import the most well-known "Aussisms."

Example:

'arvo' (afternoon): labelled `Australian, informal` in LDOCE, Cambridge, and Collins.

Canadian English

Canadian English is a mix of US and UK influences, plus its own unique words. It also has a dedicated dictionary: The Canadian Oxford Dictionary

Example"

'toque' / 'tuque' (a knitted winter hat) which is labelled 'Canadian' in Merriam-Webster, Collins, and Cambridge.

Other Varieties (Indian, Caribbean, African English) are less commonly found

Examples:
'ayah' (a nanny or maid): labeled 'Indian English'.
'braai' (barbeque): labelled 'South African' in Collins and others.
 

How to Find This Information

1. Look for the Label: the first step is always to check for a geographical label in italics or parentheses next to the definition.
2. Read the Usage Note: for more complex words, always check for a usage note (common in Merriam-Webster, American Heritage, and the OED) which often explains regional preferences in detail.

American English and British English are really just two dialects of English and there are only a few grammatical differences between them. This link shows the most important differences are in frequency of use of 'do', spelling of past tenses and differences in the use of 'have' vs. 'have got':

British and American English - Cambridge Grammar

However, there are many regional differences within the UK (and America) in vocabulary and pronunciation. This image, for example, is a bread 'dinner roll' which is used to make sandwiches or served with soup. However, the name used to ask for one depends on where you live in the UK:

Our Dialects (2024) Bread available at: Bread | Our Dialects (accessed May 30 2024):
 

Dock ¹ - a ship's berth, any structure in or upon which a ship may be held for loading, repairing, 

Late 15c., dokke, perhaps ultimately (via Late Latin *ductia "aqueduct") from the Latin ducere "to lead" or possibly from a Scandinavian word for "low ground" (compare the Norwegian word dokk "hollow, low ground") with the original sense being "furrow a grounded vessel makes in a mud bank."

Dock ² - where the accused stands in court

1580s, probably originally rogue's slang, from the Flemish word dok "pen or cage for animals," 

Dock ³ - cut off or clip an animal's tail

late 14c., from dok (n.) "fleshy part of an animal's tail" (mid-14c.) from the Old English -docca "muscle" which is related to Proto-Germanic *dokko "something round, bundle" which led to:

• Old Norse dokka "bundle; girl"
• Danish dukke "a bundle, bunch, ball of twine, straw, etc.," also "doll,"
• German Docke "small column, bundle; doll, smart girl".

The extended use of this ("to deduct a part from," and "to reduce (someone's) pay for some infraction") was being used by 1815. 

Dock ⁴ - name for various tall, coarse weeds or herbs

Old English docce, from Proto-Germanic *dokkon which led to

• Middle Dutch docke-,
• German Docken-,
• Old Danish dokka  and ultimately to the noun source of dock (v.1). It's possible that when people saw the dock plant they thought 'Oh, a bunch of leaves'

dock | Search Online Etymology Dictionary (etymonline.com)

Search engine dictionaries collect every use of a word that is available on the internet of in the books that have been included in the 'search'. This is great if you are looking for an obscure or unusual word, but sometimes this can give the impression that a word is used often when in fact it is not and may be archaic or obsolete.

In the past, students have looked up the word 'food' and tried to find alternative words that have the same meaning. Many have come up with unsuitable words such as 'snacks', 'eats', 'comestibles' and 'cates'. When asked where they got these words from, they mainly replied 'YouDao'.

There is nothing wrong with using YouDao, and YouDao is getting better and better. For example, in the most recent version of YouDao, the word 'cates' is clearly labelled as 'archaic':
 

However, it also gives two example sentences that would NEVER be used by a native speaker, and one in which the algorithm has picked up a broken word (indi...cates) and used it as an example:

Moreover, the other example sentences use 'cates' in the form of 'Cates' (with a capital letter) and they are all examples of family names (and not examples of Cate, the variant of the female name Kate): 
 

Search engine dictionaries are fine for quickly looking up the meaning of a word, but you should not use them as a basis for your writing

撒娇 (sa jiao) means playfully pouting or flighty, but (apparently) does not have the negative connotation that such behaviour would have in the West.

Examples of 撒娇 would be pouting with your lips, making a child-like voice from time to time. From a Western perspective, it is the equivalent of acting like a spoilt teenage girl when her parents refuse to buy her something. Such behaviour would be considered demeaning and childish.

Source: Chinese women and the art of 撒娇 (sa jiao) | Traveling Knox

 ‘内卷’ (nèi juǎn / involution) is a powerful expression of burnout, overcompetition, and stagnation among Chinese youth. Examples of involution are students staying up all night to rewrite essays not for better grades — but to keep up with their peers doing the same and job applicants padding resumes with master’s degrees for entry-level jobs.

Involution is a slang term to describe the burnout, endless competition, and feeling of going nowhere that many Chinese people — especially youth — experience today.

The term 内卷 (nèi juǎn), or involution, originally comes from anthropology. where it was used to describe a paradox in agricultural labor: farmers put in more effort year after year without seeing an increase in output. In other words, people were working harder but not producing more.

In recent years, Chinese netizens adopted the term to describe a modern reality: grinding endlessly in schools and workplaces, not for genuine improvement, but simply to keep up. 

Source: Understanding ‘内卷’ in China’s Digital Age | CHIN3400 China: A Cultural Odyssey

It does not include all dictionaries and you might have a personal favourite (send me a link and I'll include it!)

Pronunciation and Stress Patterns

LDOCE  clarifies the difference between the noun and verb forms with two separate entries for the verb and the noun see 'entry number' with distinct phonetic spellings.

The noun 'attribute' ('/ˈætrəˌbjuːt/') has stress on the first syllable, while the verb 'attribute'           ('/əˈtrɪbjuːt/') has stress on the second syllable.  There are audio files for both British and American pronunciations and an example of the pronunciation of the word in context.

Information about the frequency or relative importance of the word

LDOCE gives a visual and written indication of the frequency of a word which is explained when the mouse hovers over the small red circles and with the acronym AWL which stands for in the academic word list.

When you hover over the three dots, a box appears explaining, in this case, that 'attribute'  that the word in low frequency.

However, the fact that it is in the AWL suggests that it is in the 3000 most commonly used academic words so writing a sentence such as 'These results were attributed to 'food deserts' where fresh food is difficult to obtain (Lieberman, 2019)' would be considered to be suitable academic style.

Definitions and Examples

LDOCE uses simple language and real-world examples to make meanings understandable. It uses a limited defining vocabulary in order to make the information accessible to learners.

The explanations are followed by easy to understand examples:

• The noun is defined as "a quality or feature" and the example is "What attributes should a good manager have?" which should be easily understood as "What qualities should a good manager have?".
• The verb is explained as  "to believe or say that something is the result of a particular thing." and the example given is "Doctors attributed his death to heart failure". This should be easily understood as  "Doctors believed (or said) that his death was the result of heart failure".

Collocations and Usage pattern

LDOCE shows how the word is commonly used with other words.

• For the noun, common adjective collocations are 'key attribute' or 'personal attribute'.
• For the verb, LDOCE explains the required grammatical pattern: 'to attribute something to something / someone'. This should help students remember to use the correct prepositional phrase after the verb.
• LDOCE also points out that in the field or business, 'attribute' can refer to products and is the basis of a particular type of sampling that is used by accountants and auditors. The dictionary does not explain this, but anyone working in a business environment would probably already know this.

Grammatical Accuracy

In addition to the usage pattern, LDOCE also provides a verb table at the bottom of the page which, when expanded, lists all the verb tenses.

Word Origin

LDOCE explains the etymology of the word which might help students remember the meaning. The origin note explains that the word comes from Latin *ad-* ("to") + *tribuere* ("give").

Understanding this "to give" concept makes the definitions logical: you 'give' a quality 'to' someone (noun) or you 'give' credit for an effect 'to' a cause (verb). 

"Her hair is her best attribute." 

The entry gives a single phonetic transcription to guide pronunciation (/ ˈætrɪbjuːt /) with the stress clearly marked on the first syllable (AT-tribute). There are two audio files for British and American English pronunciations.

The part of speech is given as 'noun' that is countable [C] , which should help a student understand that the word can be used in singular ("an attribute") and plural ("several attributes") forms.

However, the information is extremely limited and you would have to find an alternative entry in order to find out how it is used as a verb.

Comprehensive Grammatical and Usage Information

It provides details on how the word functions in a sentence as a transitive verb [T] which means it must have a direct object. The dictionary gives a usage pattern: 'attribute sth to sb/sth' and an example 'He attributes his success to hard work'. In this example, 'his success' is the necessary direct object.

It also points out that the verb is frequently used in the passive voice: 'Her success can be attributed to three main factors'.

Level Labelling 

The noun is assigned a CEFR level of C2. This is from Common European Framework of Reference for Languages in which C2 represents the highest level of proficiency. A user at this level can understand virtually everything heard or read with ease, summarise information from different sources, and reconstruct arguments coherently. Such users can express themselves spontaneously, very fluently, and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in complex situations. It is equivalent to IELTs levels 8.5 or 9.0.

Domain specific example

The dictionary has a Business English section which defines 'attribute' as 'a characteristic, often a positive one, of a person, group, or organisation'. The example given is: 'A key attribute of the new service will be flexibility'.

Collocations 

The dictionary has an extensive collocations section, showing how the word is commonly used with other words focussing on common adjectives and verbs that collocate with the noun 'attribute'.

• Adjectives: an essential, important, key, main, positive, personal, physical, human, divine attribute
• Verbs: have an attribute, possess an attribute, share an attribute

Corpus-Based Sample Sentences

There are multiple example sentences sourced from a language corpus, demonstrating authentic real-world usage. However, these are not simplified for easy understanding.

Expandable Sections

There are expandable sections to explore more information. For example, there is a 'More Meanings Section' which contains less common or more specialised definitions and a 'Phrasal Verbs section which basically repeats the idea of using the term attribute in the pattern 'to attribute something to someone'.

Grammar details  and derived forms

Beyond just the verb and noun, Collins lists derived forms such as the adjective 'attributable' and a second noun form describing process or result: 'attribution'. This can is valuable for vocabulary building, as a learner can move from the verb ('to attribute a quote') to the adjective ('a quote attributable to Shakespeare') to the noun ('the attribution of the quote to Shakespeare'), expanding options in terms of the range of use.

Definitions with Domain-Specific Meanings

The entry gives distinct meanings for different fields of use, such as in grammar, logic, and fine art showing more specialised uses of the word. In grammar, for example, an 'attribute' is an adjective or adjectival phrase, and in Fine Arts, an 'attribute'  is a symbolic object or figure used to identify a saint, or deity. Therefore, a student reading an art history text can understand that the 'attributes of St. Peter' are the keys he is depicted with, not his personal characteristics.

Collocations

Collins offers a significantly larger and more detailed list of collocations than the earlier dictionaries. Words that collocate with the noun are:

• Adjectives: desirable, essential, important, key, main, negative, personal, physical, positive, special, unique
• Verbs: have, possess, share, lack.

This can allow students to write more sophisticated, natural-sounding phrases like 'to possess a unique attribute' or 'to lack a key attribute'.

Accessible Example Sentences

The example sentences are sourced from newspapers and journals such as The Times, The Guardian and The Wall Street  Journal. Therefore the examples are contemporary and relatively accessible.

Integrated Synonyms 

Synonyms are presented directly within the entry, facilitating vocabulary expansion and nuance. For the noun attribute, meaning 'a quality', Collins lists the following synonyms: 'character, point, aspect, property, feature, trait, virtue, and characteristic'.

This allows a student to see more subtle shades of meaning. For example, they can learn that while 'attribute' and 'trait' often mean the same thing, 'trait' is more often used for personal characteristics, while 'attribute' can be broader. This helps in choosing the best word for a given context.

Its approach is less focused on language learning measures (like IELTs and CEFR levels) and more on comprehensive definitions, etymology, and usage.

Detailed Etymology and Historical Usage

It provides an extensive word history and etymology which is a core part of the entry. For 'attribute', the dictionary details its journey from the Latin 'attribuere' ('to assign, bestow') to its adoption into English in the 14th century. This historical context explains the core meaning of 'assigning' or 'ascribing' which connects to both the verb sense (to assign a cause) and the noun sense (a quality assigned to something).

Usage Guide and Synonym Discussion for connotation

The dictionary includes a detailed 'Did you know'' and 'Synonym Discussion' section, which is a defining feature. It does not just list synonyms; it distinguishes between subtle shades of meaning. For example, for the verb 'to attribute', the dictionary contrasts it with 'to ascribe, to assign, to impute, to credit', and 'to charge' in which 'ascribe' suggests inference or conjecture, 'impute' suggests an accusation or blame and 'credit' implies a positive ascription. This helps a user choose the word with exactly the right connotation.

Order of Definitions by Historical Development

The dictionary lists definitions in order of their historical emergence rather than by most common current usage. The first definition for the verb, for example, is typically the oldest. For 'to attribute', this is 'to explain (something) by indicating a cause'.

Example Sentences from a Wide-Ranging Corpus

This dictionary uses example sentences that include contemporary and historical sources such as published writers, newspapers, and magazines. The first examples for 'attribute' are from Forbes magazine and CNN Money.

Pronunciation with in-house diacritical marks

MW provides pronunciations using its own diacritical system (e.g., \ə-ˈtri-ˌbyüt\).

This system is designed to be accessible to those who may not know the IPA. Audio pronunciations are also available.

Multi-Source Definitions

TFD presents definitions from a range of respected dictionaries: 

1. American Heritage Dictionary: known for its usage notes and clear definitions.
2. Collins English Dictionary: comprehensive definitions and examples (note that this is not the same version of Collins that was introduced earlier).
3. WordNet (Princeton University) which groups words into synsets (sets of synonyms) and defines relationships between them.
4. Random House Kernerman Webster's Dictionary: another major American dictionary.

This provides a richer, more rounded understanding than any single source.

Extensive, Categorised Example Sentences

TFD provides a large number of example sentences, often organised by sense or meaning to illustrate each different sense of the word. For the verb 'to attribute', the examples clearly show its use in different contexts:

• 'She attributed his bad mood to fatigue' (=assigning a cause for a state)
• 'The quote is attributed to Benjamin Franklin'. (=assigning authorship)
• 'We attribute our success to good planning.' (=assigning credit for an outcome)

Thesaurus and Translation 

TFD integrates synonyms, antonyms, and translations into the main entry. The sidebar and top tabs provide immediate access to:

• Thesaurus:  an extensive list of synonyms and antonyms for both the verb and noun forms, sourced from major thesauri
• Translations: instant translations into dozens of languages. 

Specialised and Technical Definitions

TFD aggregates highly specialised definitions from fields like computing, grammar, and logic.
For 'attribute', for example, this includes its use in

Computing: 'A characteristic of a file, directory, or other item in a computer system, such as read-only status.'

Grammar: 'A word or phrase syntactically subordinate to another word or phrase that it modifies; for example, 'my sister's' in 'my sister's house'.

Pronunciation from Multiple Sources

TFD provides IPA phonetic transcriptions and audio pronunciations from different dictionaries.

Conclusion

The Free Dictionary is less a learning tool (like LDOCE) and more a powerful research database. It provides breadth, depth, and convenience by compiling the work of many expert sources into a single, massive, informative entry. It is designed for the user who wants every available piece of information about a word at their fingertips without having to open multiple tabs or books.

However, it may only be available using Eduroam.